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Welcome to Autodesk Quantity Takeoff (QTO). Using QTO, you can produce detailed quantity takeoff for material, labor, and other resources to accurately. Autodesk Quantity Takeoff Getting Started Guide. Welcome to Autodesk Quantity Takeoff (QTO). QTO gives you the tools to perform digital quantity.

 
 

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It does not store any personal data. Functional Functional. Functional cookies help to perform certain functionalities like sharing the content of the website on social media platforms, collect feedbacks, and other third-party features. Allowable stress is usually expressed as a function of the yield stress Fy or tensile stress Fu of the material. A factor of safety is usually applied to reduce the nominal resistance of the structural member to a fraction of its capacity.

This accounts for approximations used in structural analysis such as overload and understrength of the material or member. The general format for an allowable stress design has the form: where Rn is the nominal resistance of the structural component expressed in a unit of stress; Qni is the service, or working stresses computed from the applied working load of type i; F. In its development, both load effects and resistance were treated as random variables. A design is considered satisfactory according to the strength criterion if the resistance exceeds the load effects by a comfortable margin.

Different load factors are used for different load types to reflect the varying degree of uncertainty associated with the determination of load magnitudes. In general, a lower load factor is used for a load that is more predictable and a higher load factor is used for a load that is less predictable. LRFD is based on the limit state design concept.

Bars at 6″ ctrs. Bars at 5″ ctrs. Bars at 8″ ctrs. Plumbing Toilets 41 nr. A aila ilit of Mate ials With respect to the availability of construction materials for the steel design option, a substantially large amount of the materials may require import due to the probability of custom steel section sizes required by the design which may not stocked by local material suppliers.

The added cost of import of these structural elements will further impact on the overall cost of the respective model option. The desired structural concrete mix can be sourced from local concrete mix manufacturers based on required concrete strength. Structural steel rebar can also be acquired locally from material suppliers although cost for import may occur later in the project implementation stage. Co st u tio S heduli g With respect to the scheduling of construction works for the steel option, structural steel framing can be assembled once the required steel sections are available and the required labour and machinery are on site.

These steel section can be assembled continuously if need be. Li itatio s The following is a list of limitations experienced by the researcher: Lack of readily available information, manuals and persons with knowledge of Autodesk Robot Structural Analysis. Lack of time due to courses commencing late and running into project dedicated time.

Adequate space for the Administrative Staff since the current building is cramped. It will provide Guyanese students with the opportunity to further their education.

Ease the burden of long waiting time in the sun and prolonged periods of standing. Faster processing time of students and enrolling students. Easier access to Student and other records. More available space, thus an increase in the number of staff can be done. Re o e datio s The following is a list of recommendations made by the researcher: Design of a Reinforced Concrete structure or a composite structure and a cost comparison to determine which design is more economical.

Design of alternative floor systems in order to determine the most suitable one. Structural Analysis of concrete options taking into consideration creep and shrinkage factors. Greater research can be done with emphasis on earthquake resisting designs since Guyana has been experiencing an increase in earthquake activity. Design of Structural Elements. Handbook of Structural Engineering. Structural Analysis. New Jersey: Perason Prentice Hall. Advanced Methods of Structural Analysis.

New York: Springer. Building Design and Construction. New York: McGraw-Hill. Concrete Construction Engineering Handbook. London: CRC Press. Steel Structures Design and Behaviour. Strategic Plan: Igor A. Recommendations made by the EIA may necessitate the redesign of some project components, require further studies, suggest changes which alter the economic viability of the project or cause a delay in project implementation.

To be of most benefit it is essential that an environmental assessment is carried out to determine significant impacts early in the project cycle so that recommendations can be built into the design and cost-benefit analysis without causing major delays or increased design costs. To be effective once implementation has commenced, the EIA should lead to a mechanism whereby adequate monitoring is undertaken to realize environmental management.

An important output from the EIA process should be the delineation of enabling mechanisms for such effective management. The way in which an EIA is carried out is not rigid: it is a process comprising a series of steps. These steps are outlined below and the techniques more commonly used in EIA are described in some detail in the parts on Techniques. In some cases, such as small-scale irrigation schemes, the transition from identification through to detailed design may be rapid and some steps in the EIA procedure may be omitted.

It is at this early stage that EIA can most strongly influence the outline proposal. The audit serves a useful feedback and learning function. The final structure of the team will vary depending on the project. Specialists may also be required for fieldwork, laboratory testing, library research, data processing, surveys and modelling.

The team leader will require significant management skill to co-ordinate the work of a team with diverse skills and knowledge. There will be a large number of people involved in EIA apart from the full-time team members. These people will be based in a wide range of organizations, such as the project proposing and authorizing bodies, regulatory authorities and various interest groups.

Such personnel would be located in various agencies and also in the private sector; a considerable number will need specific EIA training. The length of the EIA will obviously depend on the programme, plan or project under review.

However, the process usually lasts from between 6 and 18 months from preparation through to review. It will normally be approximately the same length as the feasibility study of which it should form an integral part. It is essential that the EIA team and the team carrying out the feasibility study work together and not in isolation from each other. This often provides the only opportunity for design changes to be made and mitigation measures to be incorporated in the project design.

The cost of the study will vary considerably and only very general estimates can be given here. Typically, costs vary from between 0. For small projects the cost could increase to between 1 and 3 percent of the project cost. S ee i g Screening is the process of deciding on whether an EIA is required. This may be determined by size eg greater than a predetermined surface area of irrigated land that would be affected, more than a certain percentage or flow to be diverted or more than a certain capital expenditure.

Alternatively it may be based on site-specific information. For example, the repair of a recently destroyed diversion structure is unlikely to require an EIA whilst a major new headwork structure may. Guidelines for whether or not an EIA is required will be country specific depending on the laws or norms in operation.

Legislation often specifies the criteria for screening and full EIA. All major donors screen projects presented for financing to decide whether an EIA is required. This will determine whether an EIA is needed and if so to what detail. S opi g Scoping occurs early in the project cycle at the same time as outline planning and pre-feasibility studies.

Scoping is the process of identifying the key environmental issues and is perhaps the most important step in an EIA. Several groups, particularly decision makers, the local population and the scientific community, have an interest in helping to deliberate the issues which should be considered, and scoping is designed to canvass their views, Wathern Scoping is important for two reasons. First, so that problems can be pinpointed early allowing mitigating design changes to be made before expensive detailed work is carried out.

Second, to ensure that detailed prediction work is only carried out for important issues. It is not the purpose of an EIA to carry out exhaustive studies on all environmental impacts for all projects.

If key issues are identified and a full scale EIA considered necessary, then the scoping should include terms of reference for these further studies. At this stage the option exists for cancelling or drastically revising the project should major environmental problems be identified. Equally it may be the end of the EIA process should the impacts be found to be insignificant. Once this stage has passed, the opportunity for major changes to the project is restricted.

Before the scoping exercise can be fully started, the remit of the study needs to be defined and agreed by the relevant parties. These will vary depending on the institutional structure. At a minimum, those who should contribute to determining the remit will include those who decide whether a policy or project is implemented, those carrying out the EIA or responsible for having it carried out by others and those carrying out parallel engineering and economic studies relating to the proposal.

A critical issue to determine is the breadth of the study. A major activity of scoping is to identify key interest groups, both governmental and non- governmental, and to establish good lines of communication. People who are affected by the project need to hear about it as soon as possible. Their knowledge and perspectives may have a major bearing on the focus of the EIA.

Rapid rural appraisal techniques provide a means of assessing the needs and views of the affected population. The main EIA techniques used in scoping are baseline studies, checklists, matrices and network diagrams.

These techniques collect and present knowledge and information in a straightforward way so that logical decisions can be made about which impacts are most significant. Risk and uncertainty are discussed further in the section Managing uncertainty. P edi tio a d itigatio Once the scoping exercise is complete and the major impacts to be studied have been identified, prediction work can start. This stage forms the central part of an EIA. Several major options are likely to have been proposed either at the scoping stage or before and each option may require separate prediction studies.

Realistic and affordable mitigating measures cannot be proposed without first estimating the scope of the impacts, which should be in monetary terms wherever possible. It then becomes important to quantify the impact of the suggested improvements by further prediction work. Clearly, options need to be discarded as soon as their unsuitability can be proved or alternatives shown to be superior in environmental or economic terms, or both.

It is also important to test the “without project” scenario. An important outcome of this stage will be recommendations for mitigating measures. This would be contained in the Environmental Impact Statement. Clearly the aim will be to introduce measures which minimize any identified adverse impacts and enhance positive impacts.

Formal and informal communication links need to be established with teams carrying out feasibility studies so that their work can take proposals into account. Similarly, feasibility studies may indicate that some options are technically or economically unacceptable and thus environmental prediction work for these options will not be required.

Many mitigating measures do not define physical changes but require management or institutional changes or additional investment, such as for health services. Mitigating measures may also be procedural changes, for example, the introduction of, or increase in, irrigation service fees to promote efficiency and water conservation.

By the time prediction and mitigation are undertaken, the project preparation will be advanced and a decision will most likely have been made to proceed with the project. Considerable expenditure may have already been made and budgets allocated for the implementation of the project. Major changes could be disruptive to project processing and only accepted if prediction shows that impacts will be considerably worse than originally identified at the scoping stage.

For example, an acceptable measure might be to alter the mode of operation of a reservoir to protect downstream fisheries, but a measure proposing an alternative to dam construction could be highly contentious at this stage. To avoid conflict, it is important that the EIA process commences early in the project cycle. It is important to assess the required level of accuracy of predictions.

Because of the level of available knowledge and the complexity of the systems, physical systems are modelled more successfully than ecological systems which in turn are more successfully modelled than social systems. Social studies including institutional capacity studies will probably produce output in non-numerical terms. Expert advice, particularly from experts familiar with the locality, can provide quantification of impacts that cannot be modelled.

Various techniques are available to remove the bias of individual opinion. Checklists, matrices, networks diagrams, graphical comparisons and overlays, are all techniques developed to help carry out an EIA and present the results of an EIA in a format useful for comparing options. The main quantifiable methods of comparing options are by applying weightings, to environmental impacts or using economic cost-benefit analysis or a combination of the two.

Numerical values, or weightings, can be applied to different environmental impacts to subjectively define their relative importance. Assigning economic values to all environmental impacts is not recommended as the issues are obscured by the single, final answer.

However, economic techniques, can provide insight into comparative importance where different environmental impacts are to be compared, such as either losing more wetlands or resettling a greater number of people. When comparing a range of proposals or a variety of mitigation or enhancement activities, a number of characteristics of different impacts need to be highlighted. The relative importance of impacts needs agreeing, usually following a method of reaching a consensus but including economic considerations.

The uncertainty in predicting the impact should be clearly noted. Finally, the time frame in which the impact will occur should be indicated, including whether or not the impact is irreversible.

This section not only sets out the mitigation measures needed for environmental management, both in the short and long term, but also the institutional requirements for implementation. All the management proposals need to be clearly defined and costed. The purpose of monitoring is to compare predicted and actual impacts, particularly if the impacts are either very important or the scale of the impact cannot be very accurately predicted. The results of monitoring can be used to manage the environment, particularly to highlight problems early so that action can be taken.

The range of parameters requiring monitoring may be broad or narrow and will be dictated by the ‘prediction and mitigation’ stage of the EIA. Typical areas of concern where monitoring is weak are: water quality, both inflow and outflow; stress in sensitive ecosystems; soil fertility, particularly salinization problems; water related health hazards; equity of water distributions; groundwater levels.

The use of satellite imagery to monitor changes in land use and the ‘health’ of the land and sea is becoming more common and can prove a cost-effective tool, particularly in areas with poor access. Remotely sensed data have the advantage of not being constrained by political and administrative boundaries. They can be used as one particular overlay in a GIS.

However, authorization is needed for their use, which may be linked to national security issues, and may thus be hampered by reluctant governments. Monitoring should not be seen as an open-ended commitment to collect data.

If the need for monitoring ceases, data collection should cease. Conversely, monitoring may reveal the need for more intensive study and the institutional infrastructure must be sufficiently flexible to adapt to changing demands.

The information obtained from monitoring and management can be extremely useful for future EIAs, making them both more accurate and more efficient. The Environmental Management Plan needs to not only include clear recommendations for action and the procedures for their implementation but must also define a programme and costs.

It must be quite clear exactly how management and mitigation methods are phased with project implementation and when costs will be incurred. Mitigation and management measures will not be adopted unless they can be shown to be practicable and good value for money. The plan should also stipulate that if, during project implementation, major changes are introduced, or if the project is aborted, the EIA procedures will be re-started to evaluate the effect of such actions. Auditi g In order to capitalise on the experience and knowledge gained, the last stage of an EIA is to carry out an Environmental Audit sometime after completion of the project or implementation of a programme.

It will therefore usually be done by a separate team of specialists to that working on the bulk of the EIA. The audit should include an analysis of the technical, procedural and decision-making aspects of the EIA. Technical aspects include: the adequacy of the baseline studies, the accuracy of predictions and the suitability of mitigation measures.

Procedural aspects include: the efficiency of the procedure, the fairness of the public involvement measures and the degree of coordination of roles and responsibilities. The audit will determine whether recommendations and requirements made by the earlier EIA steps were incorporated successfully into project implementation.

Lessons learnt and formally described in an audit can greatly assist in future EIAs and build up the expertise and efficiency of the concerned institutions. Pu li pa ti ipatio Projects or programmes have significant impacts on the local population. Whilst the aim is to improve the well-being of the population, a lack of understanding of the people and their society may result in development that has considerable negative consequences.

More significantly, there may be divergence between national economic interests and those of the local population. For example, the need to increase local rice production to satisfy increasing consumption in the urban area may differ from the needs as perceived by the local farmers. To allow for this, public participation in the planning process is essential. The EIA provides an ideal forum for checking that the affected public have been adequately consulted and their views taken into account in project preparation.

The level of consultation will vary depending on the type of plan or project. New projects involving resettlement or displacement will require the most extensive public participation. As stated before, the purpose of an EIA is to improve projects and this, to some extent, can only be achieved by involving those people directly or indirectly affected.

The value of environmental amenities is not absolute and consensus is one way of establishing values. Public consultation will reveal new information, improve understanding and enable better choices to be made. Without consultation, legitimate issues may not be heard, leading to conflict and unsustainability. The community should not only be consulted they should be actively involved in environmental matters.

The International Union for the Conservation of Nature, IUCN promotes the concept of Primary Environmental Care whereby farmers, for example, with assistance from extension services, are directly involved in environmental management.

The earlier the public are involved, the better. Ideally this will be before a development proposal is fully defined. It is an essential feature of successful scoping, at which stage feedback will have the maximum influence.

Openness about uncertainty should be a significant feature of this process. As the EIA progresses, public consultation is likely to be decreased though it is important to disseminate information. The publication of the draft Environmental Impact Statement EIS , will normally be accompanied by some sort of public hearing that needs to be chaired by a person with good communication skills. There are no clear rules about how to involve the public and it is important that the process remains innovative and flexible.

In practice, the views of people affected by the plan are likely to be heard through some form of representation rather than directly. The range of groups outside the formal structure with relevant information are likely to include: technical and scientific societies; Water User Groups; NGOs; experts on local culture; and religious groups.

However, it is important to find out which groups are under-represented and which ones are responsible for access to natural resources, namely: grazing, water, fishing and forest products. The views of racial minorities, women, religious minorities, political minorities and lower cast groups are commonly overlooked, World Bank, There has been an enormous increase in the number of environmental NGOs and “Green” pressure groups throughout the world.

Such organizations often bring environmental issues to the attention of the local press. However, this should not deter consultation with such organizations as the approach to EIA should be open and positive with the aim of making improvements.

Relevant NGOs should be identified and their experience and technical capacity put to good use. In some countries, open public meetings are the most common technique to enable public participation.

However, the sort of open debate engendered at such meetings is often both culturally alien and unacceptable. Alternative techniques must be used.

Surveys, workshops, small group meetings and interviews with key groups and individuals are all techniques that may be useful. Tools such as maps, models and posters can help to illustrate points and improve communication. Where resettlement is proposed, extensive public participation must be allowed which will, at a minimum, involve an experienced anthropologist or sociologist who speaks the local language.

Information dissemination can be achieved using a number of mechanisms including the broadcasting media, in particular newspapers and radio. Posters and leaflets are also useful and need to be distributed widely to such locations as schools, clinics, post offices, community centres, religious buildings, bus stops, shops etc. The EIA process must be seen to be fair. The social scientist team member should define how and when activities take place and also the strategy: extensive field work is expensive.

It is important to note that public participation activities are often reported as a separate section of the final EIA. Where experience of managing community involvement is limited, training is highly recommended. Rapid Rural Appraisal techniques may be an appropriate and cost effective method of assessment. Ma agi g u e tai t An EIA involves prediction and thus uncertainty is an integral part. There are two types of uncertainty associated with environmental impact assessments: that associated with the process and, that associated with predictions.

For the latter the uncertainty is in the accuracy of the findings. The main types of uncertainty and the ways in which they can be minimized are discussed by de Jongh in Wathern Final certainty will be determined at the time decisions are made. Improved coordination will reduce uncertainty. Te h i ues The importance of very wide consultation cannot be overemphasized in minimizing the risk of missing important impacts.

The significance of impacts is subjective, but the value judgements required are best arrived at by consensus: public participation and consultation with a wide sector of the community will reduce uncertainty. One commonly recurring theme is the dilemma of whether to place greater value on short-term benefits or long-term problems.

The accuracy of predictions is dependent on a variety of factors such as lack of data or lack of knowledge. It is important not to focus on predictions that are relatively easy to calculate at the expense of impacts that may be far more significant but difficult to analyse. Prediction capabilities are generally good in the physical and chemical sciences, moderate in ecological sciences and poor in social sciences.

Surveys are the most wide-spread technique for estimating people’s responses and possible future actions. The results of the EIA should indicate the level of uncertainty with the use of confidence limits and probability analyses wherever possible. Sensitivity analysis similar to that used in economic evaluation, could be used if adequate quantifiable data are available. A range of outcomes can be found by repeating predictions and adjusting key variables. EIA cannot give a precise picture of the future, much as the Economic Internal Rate of Return cannot give a precise indication of economic success.

EIA enables uncertainty to be managed and, as such, is an aid to better decision making. A useful management axiom is to preserve flexibility in the face of uncertainty. Baseli e studies Baseline studies using available data and local knowledge will be required for scoping. The ICID Check-list will be found useful to define both coarse information required for scoping and further baseline studies required for prediction and monitoring. Specialists, preferably with local knowledge, will be needed in each key area identified.

They will need to define further data collection, to ensure that it is efficient and targeted to answer specific questions, and to quantify impacts. A full year of baseline data is desirable to capture seasonal effects of many environmental phenomena. However, to avoid delay in decision making, short-term data monitoring should be undertaken in parallel with long-term collection to provide conservative estimates of environmental impacts.

The Check-list has been prepared for non-specialists and enables much time-consuming work to be carried out in advance of expert input. It includes extensive data collection sheets. The collected data can then be used to answer a series of questions to identify major impacts and to identify shortages of data. A matrix indicates which data are linked to which questions. Chapter 4 describes the major impacts based on the 8 Check-list topics.

The very simple layout of the sheet enables an overview of impacts to be presented clearly which is of enormous value for the scoping process. Similarly, data shortages can be readily seen. Once scoping has been completed, the results sheet may be modified to omit minor topics and to change the horizontal classification to provide further information about the impacts being assessed.

At this point the output from the Check-list can be useful as an input to matrices. This enables the rapid production of a report directly from the field study. Mat i es The major use of matrices is to indicate cause and effect by listing activities along the horizontal axis and environmental parameters along the vertical axis.

In this way the impacts of both individual components of projects as well as major alternatives can be compared. The simplest matrices use a single mark to show whether an impact is predicted or not. However it is easy to increase the information level by changing the size of the mark to indicate scale, or by using a variety of symbols to indicate different attributes of the impact. The choice of symbols in this example enables the reader to see at a glance whether or not there was an impact and, if so, whether the impact was beneficial or detrimental, temporary or permanent.

Figure 8 is another example of a matrix, in this case used to clearly indicate the importance of a range of wetland values.

The system of symbols for each box shows: whether the impact is beneficial or detrimental; the scale of the impact; the probability of occurrence; the time-scale of occurrence; and, whether the design has taken the impact into account, ICOLD, This comprehensive approach, however, makes the final output rather difficult to use and a maximum of three criteria is recommended per impact to maintain clarity.

Ahmad and Sammy suggest that the most important criteria are: magnitude, or degree of change; geographical extent; significance; and, special sensitivity. For example, it may be because of irreversibility, economic vulnerability, a threat to rare species etc. A series of matrices at all stages of the EIA process can be a particularly effective way of presenting information. Each matrix may be used to compare options rated against a few criteria at a time.

The greatest drawback of matrices are that they can only effectively illustrate primary impacts. Network diagrams, described below, are a useful and complementary form of illustration to matrices as their main purpose is to illustrate higher order impacts and to indicate how impacts are inter-related. Matrices help to choose between alternatives by consensus.

One method is to make pair-wise comparisons. It provides a simple way for a group of people to compare a large number of options and reduce them to a few choices. First a matrix is drawn with all options listed both horizontally and vertically. Each option is then compared with every other one and a score of 1 assigned to the preferred option or 0. Table 8: Example of Pair wise comparison Net o k diag a s A network diagram is a technique for illustrating how impacts are related and what the consequences of impacts are.

For example, it may be possible to fairly accurately predict the impact of increased diversions or higher irrigation efficiencies on the low flow regime of a river. However, there may be many and far reaching secondary or tertiary consequences of a change in low flow.

These consequences can be illustrated using network diagrams. For example, reduced low flows are likely to reduce the production of fish which may or may not be of importance depending on the value either ecological or economic of the fish. If fish are an important component of diet or income, the reduction may lead to a local reduction in the health status, impoverishment and possibly migration. Also, reduced low flow coupled with increased pollution, perhaps as a result of increased agricultural industry, may further damage the fish population as well as reduce access to safe water.

Figure below shows an example of a network diagram for a proposed plan to increase the use of groundwater for irrigation by providing subsidies for sinking deep tube wells.

This shows the primary through to quaternary impacts, as anticipated at the scoping stage. The main crop in the area is rice. Figure Graphical comparison of alternatives. The final choice of either option B or option C will depend on the ‘weighting’ chosen Source: Ahmad and Sammy, O e la s Overlays provide a technique for illustrating the geographical extent of different environmental impacts.

Each overlay is a map of a single impact. For example, saline effected areas, deforested areas, limit of a groundwater pollution plume etc can be analysed and clearly demonstrated to non-experts.

The original technique used transparencies which is somewhat cumbersome. However, the development of Geographic Information Systems GIS can make this technique particularly suitable for comparing options, pinpointing sensitive zones and proposing different areas or methods of land management. Mathe ati al odelli g Mathematical modelling is one of the most useful tools for prediction work.

However, it is essential to use methods with an accuracy which reflects the quality of the input data, which may be quite coarse. It should also be appreciated that model output is not necessarily an end in itself but may be an input for assessing the impact of changes in economic, social and ecological terms. Mathematical modelling was used very effectively to study the Hadejia-Jama’ are region in Nigeria. In this case the modelling demonstrated the most effective method of operating upstream reservoirs in order to conserve economically and socially valuable, and ecologically important downstream wetlands.

Under the revised regime the economic returns were also found to be higher. E pe t ad i e Expert advice should be sought for predictions which are inherently non-numeric and is particularly suitable for estimating social and cultural impacts. It should preferably take the form of a consensus of expert opinion. Local experience will provide invaluable insight. Expert opinions are also likely to be needed to assess the implications of any modelling predictions. For example, a model could be developed to calculate the area of wetlands no longer annually flooded due to upstream abstractions.

However, the impact on wetland species or the reduction in wetland productivity resulting from the reduced flooding may not be so precisely quantifiable but require a prediction based on expert opinion.

E o o i te h i ues Economic techniques have been developed to try to value the environment and research work is continuing in environmental economics. This is a specialist subject and only a brief introduction is included here. For more detailed information the reader is advised to read Winpenny and other standard texts. It is important to stress that environmentally sound development brings long term economic benefits.

Unfortunately, short term gains are often given priority. The most commonly used methods of project appraisal are cost-benefit and cost-effectiveness analysis. It has not been found easy to incorporate environmental impacts into traditional cost- benefit analysis, principally because of the difficulty in quantifying and valuing environmental effects. An EIA can provide information on the expected effects and quantify, to some extent, their importance.

This information can be used by economists in the preparation of cost-benefit calculations. Cost effectiveness analysis can also be used to determine what is the most efficient, least-cost method of meeting a given environmental objective; with costs including forgone environmental benefits.

However, defining the objective may not be straightforward. Valuing the environment raises complex and controversial issues. The environment is of value to the actual users such as fishermen , to potential users future generations or migrants , and to those who do not use it but consider its existence to have an intrinsic value perhaps to their “quality of life”.

Clearly it is difficult to quantify such values. The EOP method attempts to represent the value of change in output that results from the environmental impact of the development.

An example would be the assessment of the reduced value of fish catches due to water pollution or hydrological changes. Both methods have weaknesses and must be used judiciously. Environmental health effects present similar problems, cost-effectiveness analysis is a useful tool in the selection of mitigating or control measures, but for ex-ante project appraisal the incompatibility of human health and monetary values has forced economists to develop other techniques and indicators.

A recent publication by Phillips et al. In addition to summarizing the impacts of the alternatives under study this report must include a section on follow up action required to enable implementation of proposals and to monitor long-term impacts. The purpose of an EIA is not to reach a decision but to present the consequences of different choices of actions and to make recommendations to a decision maker. Recommendations are a crucial part of the Environmental Impact Statement. The format of the report should preferably follow a standard as recommended by the appropriate institution or required by legislation.

The executive summary of the EIS should only be 2 to 5 pages long and the main report, excluding appendices should be preferably about 50 pages long and no more than An exceptionally complex study might require pages. Experts preparing an EIA must appreciate that the final report will be read by a wide range of people and the subject matter may be technically complex.

Senior administrators and planners may not understand the importance of technical arguments unless they are presented carefully and clearly. The quality of the executive summary is particularly important as some decision- makers may only read this part of the report. The executive summary must include the most important impacts particularly those that are unavoidable and irreversible , the key mitigating measures, proposed monitoring and supervision requirements, and the recommendations of the report.

The main text should maximize the use of visual aids such as maps, drawings, photographs, tables and diagrams. Matrices, network diagrams, overlays and graphical comparisons should all be included. Any major revisions made as a result of the scoping process should be identified here. The consequences of the “no-action” option should be described together with a brief description of other developments taking place and their relationship to the study proposal.

The most significant beneficial and adverse environmental impacts associated with the options studied need to be clearly stated. Impacts need to be quantified wherever possible and uncertainties in the results need to highlighted, whether due to a lack of knowledge, lack of data or to critical but indeterminate assumptions such as future policy. The results of economic analyses need to be presented in the same section.

Mitigation and enhancement measures that are proposed may either be presented together with information on the environmental impacts or as a separate section. Impacts with no effective mitigation need to be clearly identified as such. The first part covers the implementation of proposed mitigation measures, including both costs and training, and institutional enhancements required to implement them. The second part should cover monitoring requirements to measure predicted impacts and to determine the success of mitigation measures.

Again, costs and institutional requirements need to be included for each major proposal. A clear programme of implementation should be given. An Environmental Impact Assessment EIA is a study best carried out at the planning stage of a project to identify and assess the effects a project may have on our environment and well- being, both positive and negative. Measures are proposed to lessen the negative effects and enhance the positive.

The study will also outline a plan for monitoring these effects, and the effectiveness of the mitigation measures put in place, and identify people and institutions who will carry out these functions. Why is an EIA needed? EIAs are done in order to ensure that projects are carried out in a manner that does not threaten our environment and the people in it. Once the effects on the environment are identified, developers can properly plan and manage their operations and lessen their effects on the environment.

The EIA process in Guyana also allows the public to present their views on the implementation of a project for consideration. Who requires an EIA? Examples of projects that may have significant impacts are listed in the Environmental Protection Act and include projects such as construction of airfields, hydro- electric installations etc.

The EPA has also developed a list of additional projects that may require an EIA, such as chemical processing plants, resorts, etc. Who conducts the EIA? Each consultant must have knowledge and experience relating to at least one relevant area of the project, and together, the team must be able to comprehensively assess the impacts of the project on all areas of the environment, including the human population.

Objectives of the study Reducing the burden of environmental impacts is necessary if development is to become sustainable.

As resources become limited, environmental impacts become more complex, EIA has become of ever increasing importance as a tool for development and decision making. In practice, EIA is applied primarily to prevent or minimize the adverse effects of major development projects. It is also used as a planning tool to promote sustainable development by integrating environmental considerations into a wide range of proposed actions.

Most notably, the use of policies and plans to focus on the highest levels of decision making and take care of the environment in considering development alternatives and options.

More limited forms of EIA can be used to ensure that smaller scale projects conform to appropriate environmental standards or site and design criteria. The aim and objective of EIA can be divided into two categories. The immediate aim of EIA is to inform the process of decision making by identifying the potentially significant environmental effects and risks of development projects.

The ultimate long term aim of EIA is to promote sustainable development by ensuring that development projects do not undermine critical resource and ecological functions or the well-being, lifestyle and livelihood of the communities and people who depend on them.

The main objective of this study consist in carrying out a comprehensive Environmental Impact Assessment study for the Steel Structure project on the environment during the site preparation and operation phase. Methodology used for the study Based on terms of reference ToR usually prepared by the consultant, the methodology used consisted of the following: a.

Literature review: Documentation on policies, laws, regulations and guidelines related environmental management, industry sector, waste management, land use EIA process etc. Interviews: The consultant has interviewed people in the area of the project as well as in the Ministries and other governmental institutions related to this project. Data collection: Through site visits, required qualitative and quantitative data will be collected d. Mapping and zoning of the site f.

Reporting: the data and information collected would be organized and compiled in a report. Important environmental regulations were under study by the Government for instance related to the declaration of new protected areas and these new regulations can later become applicable to the UG project implementation. In the future, the Environmental and Social Manual of this project should be updated and improved to accommodate new regulations applicable to Project implementation.

Project activities area also subject to the application of international treaties and agreements in which Guyana is signatory. These treaties pursue the conservation of biological diversity, wetlands and marine ecosystems and promote adequate management of pesticides, climate change, among other topics. The Act also provides that the EPA will be the central coordinating agency for environmental management in the relevant sectors in Guyana.

Section 68 of the Act provides for the elaboration of regulations to articulate specific areas of environmental management, and of relevance are the Regulations on hazardous waste management, water quality, air quality, noise management and environmental authorization which were established under the Environmental Protection Act in These pollution management regulations were developed to regulate and control the activities of developmental projects during construction and operation.

Standards establishing the permissible parameters under these regulations are being developed. Parameters are specified for several contaminants including smoke, solid particles and carbon monoxide. They provide for minimizing the contamination of potential and existing water supply sources.

Some of the key activities which are covered under the Regulations are generation, treatment and disposal5 of hazardous waste. The Regulation is read and construed as being in addition to, and not in contravention of the Pesticides and Toxic Chemicals Control Act No. Based on the definition all chemical wastes including persistent organic pollutants POPs are covered under these Regulations for the purposes of management. Permits are required for the generation of waste which is monitored throughout the production, storage, transport and release phases.

The waste streams on which focus is centered for control are as follows: a Clinical Waste from medical care in hospitals, medical centers and clinics; b Waste from the production and preparation of pharmaceutical products; c Waste from the production, formulation and use of biocides and phytopharmaceuticals; d Waste pharmaceuticals, drugs and medicines; and e Waste from the manufacture, formulation and use of wood preserving chemicals.

Specific constituents are also listed in this Regulation. Guidelines and procedures are specified in its contents and a fee structure in its schedule. This critical piece of legislation focuses on the management and conservation of wildlife. It addresses issues including the capturing, gathering, collecting, hunting, killing and taking of wildlife. The regulations cover the use of wildlife for any purposes, including as bush meat, for research, and for medicinal purposes.

It also makes provisions for the classification of wildlife, as well as areas within Guyana. The regulations are already being enforced. Also, persons who deposit litter from a moving vehicle unto a public place will be considered an offender.

FORESTRY ACT, The Forestry Act sets a regime for the sustainable management of the state forests, by providing State forests through concessions for forest activities, including the conservation of biological diversity and environmental services provided by the forest. The second part of the Act provides for the issuance of five types of state forest authorizations: concessions, exploratory permits, use permits, community forest management agreements and afforestation agreements.

This section also addresses compliance with occupational health. The Act prohibits acts that could cause forest fires in State Forest areas and allows the GFC to declare certain areas to be fire protection areas. The Act places emphasis on value added activities by addressing issues of quality control through legally binding codes of practice which can be subject to amendments from time to time.

State Forests are to be declared by public notice under s. Additionally, the Act contemplates the use of State forests for eco-tourism, but does not identify control measures such as carrying capacity. As with the previous Forestry Act, the Forestry Act allows logging concessions to be issued over untitled traditional lands.

The Act covers hazardous chemicals at workplaces which can endanger the health of workers, and allows for the limited or restricted use of such chemicals. It also covers the introduction of new chemicals in the workplace. The main body vested with this responsibility is the Office of the National Trust of Guyana which was established in A hundred fistfuls of planting seed could give a 50 fold return when the seed came to be harvested.

This insight changed the way that mankind lived and the striving for an improved standard of living gradually laid the foundations for the society we know today.

The most important driving force behind this development has undoubtedly been the ambition to increase consumption and raise living standards. With industrialisation, mankind has developed new possibilities for harvesting an ample return from input labour. As the consumption of goods grows, so too does the impact on our environment. At the same time, economic activities become more global in scale and acquiring a proper overview of them more difficult. It is increasingly important, therefore, to be able to deal with environmental issues not only locally but from a global perspective.

With the help of environmental assessments, the effect of consumption on the environment can be quantified and a factual basis for decisions on sustainable development be provided. It might be thought that this material is fully developed; in fact, specialised steel grades are being developed all the time and at an ever faster rate.

From a sustainability perspective, the steel grades of today and tomorrow offer considerable scope for improving the efficiency of energy and material use and for providing a longer lifespan for products and plants in contemporary society.